Mercurial > repo
changeset 2560:2b249a8b2533
<oerjan> rm slist.rej rainbow; mv egobot.tar.xz src; rmdir google.com
| author | HackBot |
|---|---|
| date | Sun, 31 Mar 2013 19:48:17 +0000 |
| parents | cf07f1f4c386 |
| children | cce5b83b8eb7 |
| files | egobot.tar.xz rainbow slist.rej src/egobot.tar.xz |
| diffstat | 4 files changed, 0 insertions(+), 776 deletions(-) [+] |
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-/* cache key: enwiki:resourceloader:filter:minify-js:7:44c9353a96594b99750bfcd945577bd4 */ -}</script> -<script>if(window.mw){ -mw.loader.load(["mediawiki.page.startup","mediawiki.legacy.wikibits","mediawiki.legacy.ajax","ext.vector.footerCleanup","ext.wikimediaShopLink.core","wikibase.client.init","ext.centralNotice.bannerController"]); -}</script> -<script src="//bits.wikimedia.org/geoiplookup"></script><link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /><!--[if lt IE 7]><style type="text/css">body{behavior:url("/w/static-1.21wmf11/skins/vector/csshover.min.htc")}</style><![endif]--></head> -<body class="mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr ns-0 ns-subject page-Rainbow skin-vector action-view vector-animateLayout"> - <div id="mw-page-base" class="noprint"></div> - <div id="mw-head-base" class="noprint"></div> - <!-- content --> - <div id="content" class="mw-body" role="main"> - <a id="top"></a> - <div id="mw-js-message" style="display:none;"></div> - <!-- sitenotice --> - <div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --><script> - mw.loader.using( 'ext.centralNotice.bannerController', function() { mw.centralNotice.initialize(); } ); -</script> -</div> - <!-- /sitenotice --> - <!-- firstHeading --> - <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading" lang="en"><span dir="auto">Rainbow</span></h1> - <!-- /firstHeading --> - <!-- bodyContent --> - <div id="bodyContent"> - <!-- tagline --> - <div id="siteSub">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> - <!-- /tagline --> - <!-- subtitle --> - <div id="contentSub"></div> - <!-- /subtitle --> - <!-- jumpto --> - <div id="jump-to-nav" class="mw-jump"> - Jump to: <a href="#mw-head">navigation</a>, <a href="#p-search">search</a> - </div> - <!-- /jumpto --> - <!-- bodycontent --> - <div id="mw-content-text" lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"><div class="dablink">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_(disambiguation)" title="Rainbow (disambiguation)">Rainbow (disambiguation)</a>.</div> -<div class="metadata topicon nopopups" id="protected-icon" style="display:none; right:55px;"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected until September 25, 2013."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/20px-Padlock-silver.svg.png" width="20" height="20" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/30px-Padlock-silver.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/40px-Padlock-silver.svg.png 2x" /></a></div> -<div class="thumb tright"> -<div class="thumbinner" style="width:402px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg/400px-Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg" width="400" height="210" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg/600px-Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg/800px-Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg 2x" /></a> -<div class="thumbcaption"> -<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="//bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf11/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" /></a></div> -Double rainbow and supernumerary rainbows on the inside of the primary arc. The shadow of the photographer's head on the bottom marks the centre of the rainbow circle (<a href="/wiki/Antisolar_point" title="Antisolar point">antisolar point</a>).</div> -</div> -</div> -<p>A <b>rainbow</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorological</a> phenomenon that is caused by reflection of light in water droplets in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Earth's atmosphere" class="mw-redirect">Earth's atmosphere</a>, resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Optical_spectrum" title="Optical spectrum" class="mw-redirect">spectrum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> appearing in the sky. It takes the form of a <a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">multicoloured</a> <a href="/wiki/Arc_(geometry)" title="Arc (geometry)">arc</a>.<br /> -Rainbows caused by sunlight always appear in the section of sky directly opposite the sun.</p> -<p>In a "primary rainbow", the arc shows red on the outer part and violet on the inner side. This rainbow is caused by light being refracted while entering a droplet of water, then reflected inside on the back of the droplet and refracted again when leaving it.</p> -<p>In a double rainbow, a second arc is seen outside the primary arc, and has the order of its colours reversed, red facing toward the other one, in both rainbows. This second rainbow is caused by light reflecting twice inside water droplets.</p> -<table id="toc" class="toc"> -<tr> -<td> -<div id="toctitle"> -<h2>Contents</h2> -</div> -<ul> -<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Overview"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Overview</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Visibility"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Visibility</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Number_of_colours_in_spectrum_or_rainbow"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Number of colours in spectrum or rainbow</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Explanation"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Explanation</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#Variations"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Variations</span></a> -<ul> -<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Multiple_rainbows"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Multiple rainbows</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Twinned_rainbow"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Twinned rainbow</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Tertiary_and_quaternary_rainbows"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Tertiary and quaternary rainbows</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Higher-order_rainbows"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Higher-order rainbows</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Supernumerary_rainbow"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Supernumerary rainbow</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Reflected_rainbow.2C_reflection_rainbow"><span class="tocnumber">5.6</span> <span class="toctext">Reflected rainbow, reflection rainbow</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Monochrome_rainbow"><span class="tocnumber">5.7</span> <span class="toctext">Monochrome rainbow</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Rainbows_under_moonlight"><span class="tocnumber">5.8</span> <span class="toctext">Rainbows under moonlight</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Fogbow"><span class="tocnumber">5.9</span> <span class="toctext">Fogbow</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Circumhorizontal_arc"><span class="tocnumber">5.10</span> <span class="toctext">Circumhorizontal arc</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Rainbows_on_Titan"><span class="tocnumber">5.11</span> <span class="toctext">Rainbows on Titan</span></a></li> -</ul> -</li> -<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Scientific_history"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Scientific history</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Culture"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Culture</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> -<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> -</ul> -</td> -</tr> -</table> -<h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Overview">Overview</span></h2> -<p>The rainbow is not located at a specific distance, but comes from any water droplets viewed from a certain angle relative to the Sun's rays. Thus, a rainbow is not an object, and cannot be physically approached. Indeed, it is impossible for an observer to manoeuvre to see any rainbow from water droplets at any angle other than the customary one of 42 degrees from the direction opposite the Sun. Even if an observer sees another observer who seems "under" or "at the end of" a rainbow, the second observer will see a different rainbow further off - yet, at the same angle as seen by the first observer. A rainbow spans a continuous spectrum of colours. Any distinct bands perceived are an artefact of human <a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">colour vision</a>, and no banding of any type is seen in a black-and-white photo of a rainbow, only a smooth gradation of intensity to a maximum, then fading towards the other side. For colours seen by a normal human eye, the most commonly cited and remembered sequence is <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>'s sevenfold red, orange, yellow, green, blue, <a href="/wiki/Indigo" title="Indigo">indigo</a> and violet.<sup id="cite_ref-Newton.2C_1740_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newton.2C_1740-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Waldman.2C_2002_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Waldman.2C_2002-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<p>Rainbows can be caused by many forms of airborne water. These include not only rain, but also mist, spray, and airborne <a href="/wiki/Dew" title="Dew">dew</a>.</p> -<div class="thumb tright" style="width: 232px;"> -<div class="thumbinner"> -<div style="margin: 1px; width: 222px"> -<div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:TakakkawFalls2_edit.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/TakakkawFalls2_edit.jpg/220px-TakakkawFalls2_edit.jpg" width="220" height="147" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/TakakkawFalls2_edit.jpg/330px-TakakkawFalls2_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/TakakkawFalls2_edit.jpg/440px-TakakkawFalls2_edit.jpg 2x" /></a></div> -<div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">Rainbows can form in mist, such as that of a waterfall</div> -</div> -<div style="margin: 1px; width: 222px"> -<div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Rainbow_02.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Rainbow_02.jpg/220px-Rainbow_02.jpg" width="220" height="146" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Rainbow_02.jpg/330px-Rainbow_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Rainbow_02.jpg/440px-Rainbow_02.jpg 2x" /></a></div> -<div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">Rainbow with a faint reflected rainbow in the lake</div> -</div> -<div style="margin: 1px; width: 222px"> -<div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:A_surfer_in_the_air_2.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/A_surfer_in_the_air_2.jpg/220px-A_surfer_in_the_air_2.jpg" width="220" height="147" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/A_surfer_in_the_air_2.jpg/330px-A_surfer_in_the_air_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/A_surfer_in_the_air_2.jpg/440px-A_surfer_in_the_air_2.jpg 2x" /></a></div> -<div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">Rainbows may form in the spray created by waves (called <i>spray bows</i>)</div> -</div> -<div style="margin: 1px; width: 222px"> -<div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Rainbow_At_Maraetai_Beach_New_Zealand.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Rainbow_At_Maraetai_Beach_New_Zealand.jpg/220px-Rainbow_At_Maraetai_Beach_New_Zealand.jpg" width="220" height="165" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Rainbow_At_Maraetai_Beach_New_Zealand.jpg/330px-Rainbow_At_Maraetai_Beach_New_Zealand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Rainbow_At_Maraetai_Beach_New_Zealand.jpg/440px-Rainbow_At_Maraetai_Beach_New_Zealand.jpg 2x" /></a></div> -<div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">Rainbow after sunlight bursts through after an intense shower in <a href="/wiki/Maraetai" title="Maraetai">Maraetai</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></div> -</div> -<div style="margin: 1px; width: 222px"> -<div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Circular_rainbow.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Circular_rainbow.jpg/220px-Circular_rainbow.jpg" width="220" height="391" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Circular_rainbow.jpg/330px-Circular_rainbow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Circular_rainbow.jpg/440px-Circular_rainbow.jpg 2x" /></a></div> -<div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">Circular rainbow seen while <a href="/wiki/Skydiving" title="Skydiving" class="mw-redirect">skydiving</a> over <a href="/wiki/Rochelle,_Illinois" title="Rochelle, Illinois">Rochelle, Illinois</a></div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Visibility">Visibility</span></h2> -<p>Rainbows can be observed whenever there are water <a href="/wiki/Drop_(liquid)" title="Drop (liquid)">drops</a> in the air and <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> shining from behind at a low <a href="/wiki/Altitude" title="Altitude">altitude</a> <a href="/wiki/Angle" title="Angle">angle</a>. The most spectacular rainbow displays happen when half the sky is still dark with raining <a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">clouds</a> and the observer is at a spot with clear sky in the direction of the sun. The result is a luminous rainbow that contrasts with the darkened background.</p> -<p>The rainbow effect is also commonly seen near <a href="/wiki/Waterfall" title="Waterfall">waterfalls</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fountain" title="Fountain">fountains</a>. In addition, the effect can be artificially created by dispersing water droplets into the air during a sunny day. Rarely, a <a href="/wiki/Moonbow" title="Moonbow">moonbow</a>, lunar rainbow or nighttime rainbow, can be seen on strongly moonlit nights. As human <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visual perception</a> for colour is poor in low light, moonbows are often perceived to be white.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> It is difficult to photograph the complete semicircle of a rainbow in one frame, as this would require an <a href="/wiki/Angle_of_view" title="Angle of view">angle of view</a> of 84°. For a <a href="/wiki/135_film" title="135 film">35 mm</a> camera, a lens with a focal length of 19 mm or less <a href="/wiki/Wide-angle_lens" title="Wide-angle lens">wide-angle lens</a> would be required. Now that powerful software for stitching several images into a panorama is available, images of the entire arc and even secondary arcs can be created fairly easily from a series of overlapping frames. From an <a href="/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft" title="Fixed-wing aircraft">aeroplane</a>, one has the opportunity to see the whole circle of the rainbow, with the plane's shadow in the centre. This phenomenon can be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Glory_(optical_phenomenon)" title="Glory (optical phenomenon)">glory</a>, but a glory is usually much smaller, covering only 5–20°.</p> -<p>At good visibility conditions (for example, a dark cloud behind the rainbow), the second arc can be seen, with inverse order of colours. At the background of the blue sky, the second arc is barely visible.</p> -<h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Number_of_colours_in_spectrum_or_rainbow"><span id="The_seven_colours_of_the_rainbow"></span>Number of colours in spectrum or rainbow</span></h2> -<p>A spectrum obtained using a glass prism and a point source is a continuum of wavelengths without bands. The number of colours that the human eye is able to distinguish in a spectrum is in the order of 100.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, the <a href="/wiki/Munsell_color_system" title="Munsell color system">Munsell colour system</a> (a 20th century system for numerically describing colours, based on equal steps for human visual perception) distinguishes 100 hues. The apparent discreteness of main colours is an artefact of human perception and the exact number of main colours is a somewhat arbitrary choice.</p> -<table style="margin: 1em auto; text-align: center"> -<tr> -<td style="width: 4em"><a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">Red</a></td> -<td style="width: 4em"><a href="/wiki/Orange_(colour)" title="Orange (colour)">Orange</a></td> -<td style="width: 4em"><a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">Yellow</a></td> -<td style="width: 4em"><a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">Green</a></td> -<td style="width: 4em"><a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">Blue</a></td> -<td style="width: 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indigo" title="Indigo">Indigo</a></td> -<td style="width: 4em"><a href="/wiki/Violet_(colour)" title="Violet (colour)" class="mw-redirect">Violet</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span style="background-color:#ff0000; color:; border:1px solid #000000; text-align:center;">    </span></td> -<td><span style="background-color:#ff8000; color:; border:1px solid #000000; text-align:center;">    </span></td> -<td><span style="background-color:#ffff00; color:; border:1px solid #000000; text-align:center;">    </span></td> -<td><span style="background-color:#008000; color:; border:1px solid #000000; text-align:center;">    </span></td> -<td><span style="background-color:#0000ff; color:; border:1px solid #000000; text-align:center;">    </span></td> -<td><span style="background-color:#4B0082; color:; border:1px solid #000000; text-align:center;">    </span></td> -<td><span style="background-color:#9400D3; color:; border:1px solid #000000; text-align:center;">    </span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="7"><i>The seven main colours</i></td> -</tr> -</table> -<p>Newton originally (1672) divided the spectrum into five main colours. Later he included <a href="/wiki/Orange_(colour)" title="Orange (colour)">orange</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indigo_(colour)" title="Indigo (colour)" class="mw-redirect">indigo</a>, giving seven main colours by analogy to the number of notes in a musical scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Newton.2C_1740_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newton.2C_1740-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<div class="thumb tleft"> -<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Prism_compare_rainbow_01.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Prism_compare_rainbow_01.png/220px-Prism_compare_rainbow_01.png" width="220" height="128" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Prism_compare_rainbow_01.png/330px-Prism_compare_rainbow_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Prism_compare_rainbow_01.png/440px-Prism_compare_rainbow_01.png 2x" /></a> -<div class="thumbcaption"> -<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Prism_compare_rainbow_01.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="//bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf11/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" /></a></div> -Rainbow (middle: real, bottom: computed) compared to true spectrum (top): unsaturated colours and different colour profile</div> -</div> -</div> -<p>The colour pattern of a rainbow is different from a spectrum, and the colours are less saturated. There is spectral smearing in a rainbow owing to the fact that for any particular wavelength, there is a distribution of exit angles, rather than a single unvarying angle.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> In addition, a rainbow is a blurred version of the bow obtained from a point source, because the disk diameter of the sun (0.5°) cannot be neglected compared to the width of a rainbow (2°). The number of colour bands of a rainbow may therefore be different from the number of bands in a spectrum, especially if the droplets are either large or small. Therefore, the number of colours of a rainbow is variable. If, however, the word <i>rainbow</i> is used inaccurately to mean <i>spectrum</i>, it is the number of main colours in the spectrum.</p> -<h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Explanation">Explanation</span></h2> -<table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content" style=""> -<tr> -<td class="mbox-image"> -<div style="width: 52px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg" class="image"><img alt="Crystal Clear app kedit.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/40px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png" width="40" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/60px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg/80px-Crystal_Clear_app_kedit.svg.png 2x" /></a></div> -</td> -<td class="mbox-text" style=""><span class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a></b>. <span class="hide-when-compact"><a class="external text" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rainbow&action=edit">You can help</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Talk:Rainbow" title="Talk:Rainbow">discussion page</a> may contain suggestions.</span> <small><i>(June 2011)</i></small> </span></td> -</tr> -</table> -<div class="thumb tright" style="width: 232px;"> -<div class="thumbinner"> -<div style="margin: 1px; width: 222px"> -<div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Rainbow_single_reflection.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Rainbow_single_reflection.svg/220px-Rainbow_single_reflection.svg.png" width="220" height="168" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Rainbow_single_reflection.svg/330px-Rainbow_single_reflection.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Rainbow_single_reflection.svg/440px-Rainbow_single_reflection.svg.png 2x" /></a></div> -<div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">Light rays enter a raindrop from one direction (typically a straight line from the Sun), reflect off the back of the raindrop, and fan out as they leave the raindrop. The light leaving the rainbow is spread over a wide angle, with a maximum intensity at the angles 40.89–42°.</div> -</div> -<div style="margin: 1px; width: 222px"> -<div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Rainbow1.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rainbow1.svg/220px-Rainbow1.svg.png" width="220" height="154" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rainbow1.svg/330px-Rainbow1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rainbow1.svg/440px-Rainbow1.svg.png 2x" /></a></div> -<div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">White light separates into different colours on entering the raindrop due to <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">dispersion</a>, causing red light to be refracted less than blue light.</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<p>The light is first <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refracted</a> entering the surface of the raindrop, <a href="/wiki/Reflection_(physics)" title="Reflection (physics)">reflected</a> off the back of the drop, and again refracted as it leaves the drop. The overall effect is that the incoming light is reflected back over a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Angle" title="Angle">angles</a>, with the most intense light at an angle of 40–42°. The angle is independent of the size of the drop, but does depend on its <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a>. Seawater has a higher refractive index than rain water, so the radius of a "rainbow" in sea spray is smaller than a true rainbow. This is visible to the naked eye by a misalignment of these bows.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<p>The amount by which light is refracted depends upon its <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a>, and hence its colour. This effect is called <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">dispersion</a>. Blue light (shorter wavelength) is refracted at a greater angle than red light, but due to the reflection of light rays from the back of the droplet, the blue light emerges from the droplet at a smaller angle to the original incident white light ray than the red light. Due to this angle, blue is seen on the inside of the arc of the primary rainbow, and red on the outside.</p> -<p>The light at the back of the raindrop does not undergo <a href="/wiki/Total_internal_reflection" title="Total internal reflection">total internal reflection</a>, and some light does emerge from the back. However, light coming out the back of the raindrop does not create a rainbow between the observer and the Sun because spectra emitted from the back of the raindrop do not have a maximum of intensity, as the other visible rainbows do, and thus the colours blend together rather than forming a rainbow.<sup id="cite_ref-Zero_order_glow_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zero_order_glow-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<p>A rainbow does not actually exist at a particular location in the sky. Its apparent position depends on the observer's location and the position of the Sun. All raindrops refract and reflect the sunlight in the same way, but only the light from some raindrops reaches the observer's eye. This light is what constitutes the rainbow for that observer. The bow is centred on the shadow of the observer's head, or more exactly at the <a href="/wiki/Antisolar_point" title="Antisolar point">antisolar point</a> (which is below the <a href="/wiki/Horizon" title="Horizon">horizon</a> during the daytime), and forms a circle at an angle of 40–42° to the line between the observer's head and its shadow. As a result, if the Sun is higher than 42°, then the rainbow is below the horizon and usually cannot be seen as there are not usually sufficient raindrops between the horizon (that is: eye height) and the ground, to contribute. Exceptions occur when the observer is high above the ground, for example in an aeroplane (see above), on top of a mountain, or above a waterfall.</p> -<h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Variations">Variations</span></h2> -<h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Multiple_rainbows">Multiple rainbows</span></h3> -<div class="dablink">"Double rainbow" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Double_Rainbow_(disambiguation)" title="Double Rainbow (disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect">Double Rainbow</a>.</div> -<p>Secondary rainbows are caused by a double reflection of sunlight inside the raindrops, and appear at an angle of 50–53°. As a result of the second reflection, the colours of a secondary rainbow are inverted compared to the primary bow, with blue on the outside and red on the inside. The secondary rainbow is fainter than the primary because more light escapes from two reflections compared to one and because the rainbow itself is spread over a greater area of the sky. The dark area of unlit sky lying between the primary and secondary bows is called <a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_band" title="Alexander's band">Alexander's band</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a> who first described it.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<div class="thumb tleft"> -<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Spooky_Rainbow.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Spooky_Rainbow.jpg/220px-Spooky_Rainbow.jpg" width="220" height="267" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Spooky_Rainbow.jpg/330px-Spooky_Rainbow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Spooky_Rainbow.jpg/440px-Spooky_Rainbow.jpg 2x" /></a> -<div class="thumbcaption"> -<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Spooky_Rainbow.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="//bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf11/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" /></a></div> -A double rainbow features reversed colours in the outer (secondary) bow, with the dark <a href="/wiki/Alexander%27s_band" title="Alexander's band">Alexander's band</a> between the bows.</div> -</div> -</div> -<h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Twinned_rainbow">Twinned rainbow</span></h3> -<p>Unlike a double rainbow which consists of two separate and concentric rainbow arcs, the very rare twinned rainbow appears as two rainbow arcs that split from a single base. The colours in the second bow, rather than reversing as in a double rainbow, appear in the same order as the primary rainbow. It is sometimes even observed in combination with a double rainbow. The cause of a twinned rainbow is the combination of different sizes of water drops falling from the sky. Due to air resistance, raindrops flatten as they fall, and flattening is more prominent in larger water drops. When two rain showers with different-sized raindrops combine, they each produce slightly different rainbows which may combine and form a twinned rainbow.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<p>Until recently, scientists could only make an educated guess as to why a twinned rainbow does appear, even though extremely rarely. It was thought that most probably non-spherical raindrops produced one or both bows, with surface tension forces keeping small raindrops spherical, while large drops were flattened by air resistance; or that they might even oscillate between flattened and elongated spheroids.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> However, in 2012 a new technique was used to simulate rainbows, enabling the accurate simulation of non-spherical particles. Besides twinned rainbows, this technique can also be used to simulate many different rainbow phenomena including double rainbows and supernumerary bows.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Tertiary_and_quaternary_rainbows">Tertiary and quaternary rainbows</span></h3> -<p>In addition to the primary and secondary rainbows which can be seen in a direction opposite to the sun, it is also possible (but very rare) to see two faint rainbows in the direction of the sun. These are the tertiary and quaternary rainbows, formed by light that has reflected three or four times within the rain drops, at about 40° from the sun (for tertiary rainbows) and 45° (quaternary). It is difficult to see these types of rainbows with the naked eye because of the sun's glare, but they have been photographed; definitive observations of these phenomena were not published until 2011.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Higher-order_rainbows">Higher-order rainbows</span></h3> -<p>Higher-order rainbows were described by Felix Billet (1808–1882) who depicted angular positions up to the 19th-order rainbow, a pattern he called a "rose of rainbows".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> In the laboratory, it is possible to observe higher-order rainbows by using extremely bright and well <a href="/wiki/Collimated" title="Collimated" class="mw-redirect">collimated</a> light produced by <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a>. Up to the 200th-order rainbow was reported by Ng et al. in 1998 using a similar method but an argon ion laser beam.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<div style="clear:both;"></div> -<h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Supernumerary_rainbow">Supernumerary rainbow</span></h3> -<div class="thumb tright"> -<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Supernumerary_rainbow_03_contrast.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Supernumerary_rainbow_03_contrast.jpg/220px-Supernumerary_rainbow_03_contrast.jpg" width="220" height="185" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Supernumerary_rainbow_03_contrast.jpg/330px-Supernumerary_rainbow_03_contrast.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Supernumerary_rainbow_03_contrast.jpg/440px-Supernumerary_rainbow_03_contrast.jpg 2x" /></a> -<div class="thumbcaption"> -<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Supernumerary_rainbow_03_contrast.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="//bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf11/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" /></a></div> -Contrast-enhanced photograph of a supernumerary rainbow, with additional green and violet arcs inside the primary bow.</div> -</div> -</div> -<p>A <b>supernumerary rainbow</b>—also known as a <b>stacker rainbow</b>—is an infrequent phenomenon, consisting of several faint rainbows on the inner side of the primary rainbow, and very rarely also outside the secondary rainbow. Supernumerary rainbows are slightly detached and have pastel colour bands that do not fit the usual pattern.</p> -<p>It is not possible to explain their existence using classical geometric <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a>. The alternating faint rainbows are caused by <a href="/wiki/Interference_(wave_propagation)" title="Interference (wave propagation)">interference</a> between rays of light following slightly different paths with slightly varying lengths within the raindrops. Some rays are in <a href="/wiki/Phase_(waves)" title="Phase (waves)">phase</a>, reinforcing each other through <a href="/wiki/Constructive_interference" title="Constructive interference" class="mw-redirect">constructive interference</a>, creating a bright band; others are out of phase by up to half a wavelength, cancelling each other out through <a href="/wiki/Destructive_interference" title="Destructive interference" class="mw-redirect">destructive interference</a>, and creating a gap. Given the different angles of refraction for rays of different colours, the patterns of interference are slightly different for rays of different colours, so each bright band is differentiated in colour, creating a miniature rainbow. Supernumerary rainbows are clearest when raindrops are small and of similar size. The very existence of supernumerary rainbows was historically a first indication of the <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">wave</a> nature of light, and the first explanation was provided by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young</a> in 1804.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Reflected_rainbow.2C_reflection_rainbow">Reflected rainbow, reflection rainbow</span></h3> -<div class="thumb tright"> -<div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/wiki/File:ReflectionRainbow.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/ReflectionRainbow.jpg/170px-ReflectionRainbow.jpg" width="170" height="256" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/ReflectionRainbow.jpg/255px-ReflectionRainbow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/ReflectionRainbow.jpg/340px-ReflectionRainbow.jpg 2x" /></a> -<div class="thumbcaption"> -<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:ReflectionRainbow.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="//bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf11/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" /></a></div> -Reflection rainbow and normal rainbow, at sunset</div> -</div> -</div> -<p>When a rainbow appears above a body of water, two complementary mirror bows may be seen below and above the horizon, originating from different light paths. Their names are slightly different.</p> -<p>A <b>reflected rainbow</b> may appear in the water surface below the horizon (see photo above). The sunlight is first deflected by the raindrops, and then reflected off the body of water, before reaching the observer. The reflected rainbow is frequently visible, at least partially, even in small puddles.</p> -<p>A <b>reflection rainbow</b> may be produced where sunlight reflects off a body of water before reaching the raindrops (see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eo.ucar.edu/rainbows/rnbw8.gif">diagram</a> and photo at the right), if the water body is large, quiet over its entire surface, and close to the rain curtain. The reflection rainbow appears above the horizon. It intersects the normal rainbow at the horizon, and its arc reaches higher in the sky, with its centre as high above the horizon as the normal rainbow's centre is below it. Due to the combination of requirements, a reflection rainbow is rarely visible.</p> -<p>Six (or even eight) bows may be distinguished if the reflection of the reflection bow, and the secondary bow with its reflections happen to appear simultaneously.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Monochrome_rainbow">Monochrome rainbow</span></h3> -<div class="thumb tleft"> -<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Monochrome_rainbow.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Monochrome_rainbow.jpg/220px-Monochrome_rainbow.jpg" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Monochrome_rainbow.jpg/330px-Monochrome_rainbow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Monochrome_rainbow.jpg/440px-Monochrome_rainbow.jpg 2x" /></a> -<div class="thumbcaption"> -<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Monochrome_rainbow.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="//bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf11/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" /></a></div> -Unenhanced photo of a red (monochrome) rainbow.</div> -</div> -</div> -<p>Occasionally a shower may happen at sunrise or sunset, where the shorter wavelengths like blue and green have been scattered and essentially removed from the spectrum. Further scattering may occur due to the rain, and the result can be the rare and dramatic <b>monochrome rainbow</b>.</p> -<h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Rainbows_under_moonlight">Rainbows under moonlight</span></h3> -<div class="thumb tleft"> -<div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Moonbow_at_lower_Yosemite_fall.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Moonbow_at_lower_Yosemite_fall.jpg/200px-Moonbow_at_lower_Yosemite_fall.jpg" width="200" height="191" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Moonbow_at_lower_Yosemite_fall.jpg/300px-Moonbow_at_lower_Yosemite_fall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Moonbow_at_lower_Yosemite_fall.jpg/400px-Moonbow_at_lower_Yosemite_fall.jpg 2x" /></a> -<div class="thumbcaption"> -<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Moonbow_at_lower_Yosemite_fall.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="//bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf11/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" /></a></div> -Spray moonbow at the Lower <a href="/wiki/Yosemite_Falls" title="Yosemite Falls">Yosemite Fall</a></div> -</div> -</div> -<p><a href="/wiki/Moonbow" title="Moonbow">Moonbows</a> are often perceived as white and may be thought of as monochrome. The full spectrum is present but our eyes are not normally sensitive enough to see the colours. So these are also classified (on the basis of how we see them) into seven coloured rainbow, three coloured rainbow and monochrome rainbow. Long exposure photographs will sometimes show the colour in this type of rainbow.</p> -<h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Fogbow">Fogbow</span></h3> -<div class="thumb tright"> -<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Fogbow_spectre_and_glory_filtered.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Fogbow_spectre_and_glory_filtered.jpg/220px-Fogbow_spectre_and_glory_filtered.jpg" width="220" height="141" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Fogbow_spectre_and_glory_filtered.jpg/330px-Fogbow_spectre_and_glory_filtered.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Fogbow_spectre_and_glory_filtered.jpg/440px-Fogbow_spectre_and_glory_filtered.jpg 2x" /></a> -<div class="thumbcaption"> -<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Fogbow_spectre_and_glory_filtered.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="//bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf11/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" /></a></div> -Fogbow and glory</div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fog_bow" title="Fog bow">Fog bow</a></div> -<p>Fogbows form in the same way as rainbows, but they are formed by much smaller cloud and fog droplets which diffract light extensively. They are almost white with faint reds on the outside and blues inside. The colours are dim because the bow in each colour is very broad and the colours overlap. Fogbows are commonly seen over water when air in contact with the cooler water is chilled, but they can be found anywhere if the fog is thin enough for the sun to shine through and the sun is fairly bright. They are very large—almost as big as a rainbow and much broader. They sometimes appear with a <a href="/wiki/Glory_(optical_phenomenon)" title="Glory (optical phenomenon)">glory</a> at the bow's centre.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Circumhorizontal_arc">Circumhorizontal arc</span></h3> -<p>The <a href="/wiki/Circumhorizontal_arc" title="Circumhorizontal arc">circumhorizontal arc</a> is sometimes referred to by the misnomer "fire rainbow". As it originates in ice crystals, it is not a rainbow but a <a href="/wiki/Halo_(optical_phenomenon)" title="Halo (optical phenomenon)">halo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-atoptics-circumhor_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atoptics-circumhor-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<h3> <span class="mw-headline" id="Rainbows_on_Titan">Rainbows on Titan</span></h3> -<p>It has been suggested that rainbows might exist on <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>'s moon <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a>, as it has a wet surface and humid clouds. The radius of a Titan rainbow would be about 49° instead of 42°, because the fluid in that cold environment is methane instead of water. A visitor might need <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> goggles to see the rainbow, as <a href="/wiki/Titan%27s_atmosphere" title="Titan's atmosphere" class="mw-redirect">Titan's atmosphere</a> is more transparent for those wavelengths.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Scientific_history">Scientific history</span></h2> -<p>The classical <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BC) was first to devote serious attention to the rainbow. According to Raymond L. Lee and Alistair B. Fraser, "Despite its many flaws and its appeal to Pythagorean numerology, Aristotle's qualitative explanation showed an inventiveness and relative consistency that was unmatched for centuries. After Aristotle's death, much rainbow theory consisted of reaction to his work, although not all of this was uncritical."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<p>In the <i><a href="/wiki/Naturales_Quaestiones" title="Naturales Quaestiones" class="mw-redirect">Naturales Quaestiones</a></i> (ca. 65 AD), the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a> devotes a whole book to rainbows, heaping up a number of observations and hypotheses. He notices that rainbows appear always opposite to the sun, that they appear in water sprayed by a rower or even in the water spat by a <a href="/wiki/Fullo" title="Fullo">launderer</a> on dresses; he even speaks of rainbows produced by small rods (virgulae) of glass, anticipating <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>'s experiences with prisms. He takes into account two theories: one, that the rainbow is produced by the sun reflecting in each water-drop, the other, that it is produced by the sun reflected in a cloud shaped like a <a href="/wiki/Concave_mirror" title="Concave mirror" class="mw-redirect">concave mirror</a>. He favors the latter theory. He observes other phenomena related with rainbows: the mysterious "virgae" (rods) and the <a href="/wiki/Sun_dog" title="Sun dog">parhelia</a>.</p> -<p>According to Hüseyin Gazi Topdemir, the <a href="/wiki/Physics_in_medieval_Islam" title="Physics in medieval Islam">Persian physicist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham" class="mw-redirect">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhazen; 965–1039), attempted to provide a scientific explanation for the rainbow phenomenon. In his <i>Maqala fi al-Hala wa Qaws Quzah</i> (<i>On the Rainbow and Halo</i>), al-Haytham "explained the formation of rainbow as an image, which forms at a concave mirror. If the rays of light coming from a farther light source reflect to any point on axis of the concave mirror, they form concentric circles in that point. When it is supposed that the sun as a farther light source, the eye of viewer as a point on the axis of mirror and a cloud as a reflecting surface, then it can be observed the concentric circles are forming on the axis."<sup id="cite_ref-Topdemir-77_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Topdemir-77-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup> He was not able to verify this because his theory that "light from the sun is reflected by a cloud before reaching the eye" did not allow for a possible <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental</a> verification.<sup id="cite_ref-MacTutor_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacTutor-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup> This explanation was later repeated by <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Topdemir-77_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Topdemir-77-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup> and, though incorrect, provided the groundwork for the correct explanations later given by <a href="/wiki/Kam%C4%81l_al-D%C4%ABn_al-F%C4%81ris%C4%AB" title="Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī">Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī</a> (1267–1319) and <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_of_Freiberg" title="Theodoric of Freiberg">Theodoric of Freiberg</a> (c.1250–1310).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup> Ibn al-Haytham supported the <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian</a> views that the rainbow is caused by reflection alone and that its colours are not real like object colours.<sup id="cite_ref-explanation_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-explanation-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<p>Ibn al-Haytham's contemporary, the <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Persian philosopher</a> and polymath Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna; 980–1037), provided an alternative explanation, writing "that the bow is not formed in the dark cloud but rather in the very thin mist lying between the cloud and the sun or observer. The cloud, he thought, serves simply as the background of this thin substance, much as a quicksilver lining is placed upon the rear surface of the glass in a mirror. Ibn Sīnā would change the place not only of the bow, but also of the colour formation, holding the iridescence to be merely a subjective sensation in the eye."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></a></sup> This explanation, however, was also incorrect.<sup id="cite_ref-Topdemir-77_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Topdemir-77-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup> Ibn Sīnā's account accepts many of Aristotle's arguments on the rainbow.<sup id="cite_ref-explanation_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-explanation-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<p>In <a href="/wiki/Song_Dynasty" title="Song Dynasty">Song Dynasty China</a> (960–1279), a polymathic <a href="/wiki/Scholar-bureaucrat" title="Scholar-bureaucrat" class="mw-redirect">scholar-official</a> named <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095) hypothesized—as a certain Sun Sikong (1015–1076) did before him—that rainbows were formed by a phenomenon of sunlight encountering droplets of rain in the air.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></a></sup> Paul Dong writes that Shen's explanation of the rainbow as a phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction" title="Atmospheric refraction">atmospheric refraction</a> "is basically in accord with modern scientific principles."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<p>According to Nader El-Bizri, the <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">Persian astronomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a> (1236–1311), gave a fairly accurate explanation for the rainbow phenomenon. This was elaborated on by his student, <a href="/wiki/Kam%C4%81l_al-D%C4%ABn_al-F%C4%81ris%C4%AB" title="Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī">Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī</a> (1267–1319), who gave a more mathematically satisfactory explanation of the rainbow. He "proposed a model where the ray of light from the sun was refracted twice by a water droplet, one or more reflections occurring between the two refractions." An experiment with a water-filled glass sphere was conducted and al-Farisi showed the additional refractions due to the glass could be ignored in his model.<sup id="cite_ref-MacTutor_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacTutor-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup> As he noted in his <i>Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir</i> (<i>The Revision of the Optics</i>), al-Farisi used a large clear vessel of glass in the shape of a sphere, which was filled with water, in order to have an experimental large-scale model of a rain drop. He then placed this model within a camera obscura that has a controlled <a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">aperture</a> for the introduction of light. He projected light unto the sphere and ultimately deduced through several trials and detailed observations of reflections and refractions of light that the colours of the rainbow are phenomena of the decomposition of light. His research had resonances with the studies of his contemporary <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_of_Freiberg" title="Theodoric of Freiberg">Theodoric of Freiberg</a> (without any contacts between them; even though they both relied on Aristotle's and Ibn al-Haytham's legacy), and later with the experiments of <a href="/wiki/Descartes" title="Descartes" class="mw-redirect">Descartes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a> in dioptrics (for instance, Newton conducted a similar experiment at Trinity College, though using a prism rather than a sphere).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material in the vicinity of this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s) from September 2010">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="citations at end of paragraph make it hard to verify, so anyone with sources, please position cites more precisely from October 2011">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> -<p>In Europe, Ibn al-Haytham's <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a></i> was <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">translated into Latin</a> and studied by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a>. His work on light was continued by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, who wrote in his <i><a href="/wiki/Opus_Majus" title="Opus Majus">Opus Majus</a></i> of 1268 about experiments with light shining through crystals and water droplets showing the colours of the rainbow.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></a></sup> In addition, Bacon was the first to calculate the angular size of the rainbow. He stated that the rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42° above the horizon.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_of_Freiberg" title="Theodoric of Freiberg">Theodoric of Freiberg</a> is known to have given an accurate theoretical explanation of both the primary and secondary rainbows in 1307. He explained the primary rainbow, noting that "when sunlight falls on individual drops of moisture, the rays undergo two refractions (upon ingress and egress) and one reflection (at the back of the drop) before transmission into the eye of the observer".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></a></sup> He explained the secondary rainbow through a similar analysis involving two refractions and two reflections.</p> -<div class="thumb tleft"> -<div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Descartes_Rainbow.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Descartes_Rainbow.png/220px-Descartes_Rainbow.png" width="220" height="196" class="thumbimage" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Descartes_Rainbow.png/330px-Descartes_Rainbow.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Descartes_Rainbow.png/440px-Descartes_Rainbow.png 2x" /></a> -<div class="thumbcaption"> -<div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Descartes_Rainbow.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"><img src="//bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf11/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" height="11" alt="" /></a></div> -René Descartes' sketch of how primary and secondary rainbows are formed</div> -</div> -</div> -<p><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a>' 1637 treatise, <i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Method" title="Discourse on Method" class="mw-redirect">Discourse on Method</a></i>, further advanced this explanation. Knowing that the size of raindrops did not appear to affect the observed rainbow, he experimented with passing rays of light through a large glass sphere filled with water. By measuring the angles that the rays emerged, he concluded that the primary bow was caused by a single internal reflection inside the raindrop and that a secondary bow could be caused by two internal reflections. He supported this conclusion with a derivation of the law of <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refraction</a> (subsequently to, but independently of, <a href="/wiki/Snell%27s_law" title="Snell's law">Snell</a>) and correctly calculated the angles for both bows. His explanation of the colours, however, was based on a mechanical version of the traditional theory that colours were produced by a modification of white light.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<p>Isaac Newton demonstrated that white light was composed of the light of all the colours of the rainbow, which a glass <a href="/wiki/Prism_(optics)" title="Prism (optics)">prism</a> could separate into the full spectrum of colours, rejecting the theory that the colours were produced by a modification of white light. He also showed that red light is refracted less than blue light, which led to the first scientific explanation of the major features of the rainbow.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></a></sup> Newton's corpuscular theory of light was unable to explain supernumerary rainbows, and a satisfactory explanation was not found until <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young</a> realised that light behaves as a wave under certain conditions, and can <a href="/wiki/Interference_(wave_propagation)" title="Interference (wave propagation)">interfere</a> with itself.</p> -<p>Young's work was refined in the 1820s by <a href="/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a>, who explained the dependence of the strength of the colours of the rainbow on the size of the water droplets.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></a></sup> Modern physical descriptions of the rainbow are based on <a href="/wiki/Mie_scattering" title="Mie scattering">Mie scattering</a>, work published by <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Mie" title="Gustav Mie">Gustav Mie</a> in 1908.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></a></sup> Advances in computational methods and optical theory continue to lead to a fuller understanding of rainbows. For example, <a href="/wiki/Herch_Moys%C3%A9s_Nussenzveig" title="Herch Moysés Nussenzveig">Nussenzveig</a> provides a modern overview.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></a></sup></p> -<h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Culture">Culture</span></h2> -<p>Cultural aspects are discussed in <a href="/wiki/Rainbows_in_culture" title="Rainbows in culture">Rainbows in culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rainbows_in_mythology" title="Rainbows in mythology">Rainbows in mythology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_flag" title="Rainbow flag">Rainbow flag</a></p> -<h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2> -<table class="metadata mbox-small" style="border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9;"> -<tr> -<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="Book icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/30px-Office-book.svg.png" width="30" height="30" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/45px-Office-book.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/60px-Office-book.svg.png 2x" /></td> -<td class="mbox-text plainlist" style=""> -<ul style="font-weight: bold"> -<li><a href="/wiki/Book:Rainbow" title="Book:Rainbow">Book: Rainbow</a></li> -</ul> -</td> -</tr> -</table> -<ul> -<li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_optics" title="Atmospheric optics">Atmospheric optics</a></li> -<li><a href="/wiki/Glory_(optical_phenomenon)" title="Glory (optical phenomenon)">Glory</a></li> -<li><a href="/wiki/Halo_(optical_phenomenon)" title="Halo (optical phenomenon)">Halo</a></li> -<li><a href="/wiki/Soap_bubble#Interference_and_reflection" title="Soap bubble">Iridescent colours in soap bubbles</a></li> -<li><a href="/wiki/Sun_dog" title="Sun dog">Sun dog</a></li> -</ul> -<h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span></h2> -<div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> -<ol class="references"> -<li id="cite_note-Newton.2C_1740-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newton.2C_1740_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newton.2C_1740_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Isaac Newton, <i>Optice: Sive de Reflexionibus, Refractionibus, Inflexionibus & Coloribus Lucis Libri Tres</i>, Propositio II, Experimentum VII, edition 1740:<br /> -<i>Ex quo clarissime apparet, lumina variorum colorum varia esset refrangibilitate : idque eo ordine, ut color ruber omnium minime refrangibilis sit, reliqui autem colores, aureus, flavus, viridis, cæruleus, indicus, violaceus, gradatim & ex ordine magis magisque refrangibiles.</i></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-Waldman.2C_2002-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Waldman.2C_2002_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gary Waldman, <i>Introduction to Light: The Physics of Light, Vision, and Color</i>, 2002, p. 193:<br /> -<i>A careful reading of Newton’s work indicates that the color he called indigo, we would normally call blue; his blue is then what we would name blue-green or cyan.</i></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Walklet, Keith S. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20070525033800/http://www.anseladams.com/content/newsletter/lunar_rainbow.html">"Lunar Rainbows - When to View and How to Photograph a "Moonbow""</a>. The Ansel Adams Gallery. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.anseladams.com/content/newsletter/lunar_rainbow.html">the original</a> on May 25, 2007<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20070525033800/http://www.anseladams.com/content/newsletter/lunar_rainbow.html">http://web.archive.org/web/20070525033800/http://www.anseladams.com/content/newsletter/lunar_rainbow.html</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2007-06-07</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Burch, Paula E.. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pburch.net/dyeing/dyeblog/C128544578/E1447734446/">"All About Hand Dyeing Q&A"</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.pburch.net/dyeing/dyeblog/C128544578/E1447734446/">http://www.pburch.net/dyeing/dyeblog/C128544578/E1447734446/</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 27 August 2012</span>.</span> (A number between 36 and 360 is in the order of 100)</span></li> -<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Allchin, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.umn.edu/ships/updates/newton1.htm">"Newton's Colors"</a>. <i>SHiPS Resource Center</i><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www1.umn.edu/ships/updates/newton1.htm">http://www1.umn.edu/ships/updates/newton1.htm</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2010-10-16</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Cowley, Les. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/primcol.htm">"Primary rainbow colours"</a>. <i>Atmospheric Optics</i><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/primcol.htm">http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/primcol.htm</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 27 August 2012</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Cowley, Les. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/seabow.htm">"Sea Water Rainbow"</a>. <i>Atmospheric Optics</i><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/seabow.htm">http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/seabow.htm</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2007-06-07</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-Zero_order_glow-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zero_order_glow_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Cowley, Les. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/ord0.htm">"Zero order glow"</a>. <i>Atmospheric Optics</i><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/ord0.htm">http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/ord0.htm</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2011-08-08</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See:</span> -<ul> -<li><span class="reference-text">Alexander of Aphrodisias, <i>Commentary on Book IV of Aristotle's</i> Meteorology (also known as: <i>Commentary on Book IV of Aristotle's</i> De Meteorologica or <i>On Aristotle's</i> Meteorology 4), commentary 41.</span></li> -<li><span class="reference-text">Raymond L. Lee and Alistair B. Fraser, <i>The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth, and Science</i> (University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA110#v=onepage&q&f=false">pages 110 - 111</a>.</span></li> -</ul> -</li> -<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See:</span> -<ul> -<li><span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/08/120806151415.htm">"Researchers unlock secret of the rare 'twinned rainbow' ," <i>ScienceDaily.com</i>, August 6, 2012.</a></span></li> -<li><span class="reference-text">Sadeghi, Iman; Muñoz, Adolfo; Laven, Philip; Jarosz, Wojciech; Seron, Francisco; Gutierrez, Diego; Jensen, Henrik Wann (February 2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zurich.disneyresearch.com/~wjarosz/publications/sadeghi11physically.html">"Physically-based simulation of rainbows,"</a> <i>ACM</i> [Association for Computing Machinery] <i>Transactions on Graphics</i>, <b>31</b>(1): 3.1 - 3.12.</span></li> -</ul> -</li> -<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/twin1.htm">Atmospheric Optics: Twinned rainbows</a></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zurich.disneyresearch.com/~wjarosz/publications/sadeghi11physically.html">Sadeghi et al. (2012) (computer simulations of rainbows)</a></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/10/111005111001.htm"><i>Triple Rainbows Exist, Photo Evidence Shows</i>, ScienceDaily.com, Oct. 5, 2011</a></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Theusner, Michael (01-Oct-2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ao/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-50-28-F129">"Photographic observation of a natural fourth-order rainbow"</a>. <i>Applied Optics</i> (The Optical Society) <b>50</b> (28): F129-F133. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011ApOpt..50F.129T">2011ApOpt..50F.129T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1364%2FAO.50.00F129">10.1364/AO.50.00F129</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1559-128X">1559-128X</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ao/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-50-28-F129">http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ao/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-50-28-F129</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 06-Oct-2011</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Großmann, Michael; Schmidt, Elmar; Haußmann, Alexander (01-Oct-2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ao/abstract.cfm?uri=ao-50-28-F134">"Photographic evidence for the third-order rainbow"</a>. <i>Applied Optics</i> (The Optical Society) <b>50</b> (28): F134-F141. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011ApOpt..50F.134G">2011ApOpt..50F.134G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1364%2FAO.50.00F134">10.1364/AO.50.00F134</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Serial_Number" title="International Standard Serial Number">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/1559-128X">1559-128X</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ao/abstract.cfm?uri=ao-50-28-F134">http://www.opticsinfobase.org/ao/abstract.cfm?uri=ao-50-28-F134</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 04-Nov-2011</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Billet, Felix (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.numdam.org/item?id=ASENS_1868_1_5__67_0">"Mémoire sur les Dix-neuf premiers arcs-en-ciel de l'eau [Memoir on the first nineteen rainbows]"</a>. <i>Annales scientifiques de l'École Normale Supérieure</i> <b>1</b> (5): 67–109<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.numdam.org/item?id=ASENS_1868_1_5__67_0">http://www.numdam.org/item?id=ASENS_1868_1_5__67_0</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2008-11-25</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Walker, Jearl (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://optica.machorro.net/Optica/SciAm/Rainbow/1977-07-body.html">"How to create and observe a dozen rainbows in a single drop of water"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i> <b>237</b> (July): 138–144 + 154<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://optica.machorro.net/Optica/SciAm/Rainbow/1977-07-body.html">http://optica.machorro.net/Optica/SciAm/Rainbow/1977-07-body.html</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2011-08-08</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Ng, P. H.; Tse, M. Y.; Lee, W. K. (1998). "Observation of high-order rainbows formed by a pendant drop". <i>Journal of the Optical Society of America B</i> <b>15</b> (11): 2782. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998JOSAB..15.2782N">1998JOSAB..15.2782N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1364%2FJOSAB.15.002782">10.1364/JOSAB.15.002782</a>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See:</span> -<ul> -<li><span class="reference-text">Thomas Young (1804) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=7AZGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false">"Bakerian Lecture: Experiments and calculations relative to physical optics,"</a> <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London</i> <b>94</b>: 1-16; see especially pp. 8 - 11.</span></li> -<li><span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/supers.htm">Atmospheric Optics: Supernumerary Rainbows</a></span></li> -</ul> -</li> -<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Terje O. Nordvik. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap070912.html">"Six Rainbows Across Norway"</a>. APOD (Astronomy Picture of the Day)<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap070912.html">http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap070912.html</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2007-06-07</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/rainbows/reflform.htm">Atmospheric Optics: Reflection rainbows formation</a></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See:</span> -<ul> -<li><span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/droplets/fogbow.htm">Atmospheric Optics: Fogbow</a></span></li> -<li><span class="reference-text">James C. McConnel (1890) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=fFAEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA453#v=onepage&q&f=false">"The theory of fog-bows,"</a> <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>, series 5, <b>29</b> (181): 453-461.</span></li> -</ul> -</li> -<li id="cite_note-atoptics-circumhor-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-atoptics-circumhor_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Cowley, Les. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/cha2.htm">"Circumhorizontal arc"</a>. <i>Atmospheric Optics</i><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/cha2.htm">http://www.atoptics.co.uk/halo/cha2.htm</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2007-04-22</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Science@NASA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/25feb_titan2.htm">"Rainbows on Titan"</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/25feb_titan2.htm">http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2005/25feb_titan2.htm</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2008-11-25</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Raymond L. Lee, Alistair B. Fraser (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA109&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false"><i>The rainbow bridge: rainbows in art, myth, and science</i></a>. Penn State Press. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01977-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01977-8">0-271-01977-8</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://books.google.com/?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA109&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false">http://books.google.com/?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA109&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false</a></span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-Topdemir-77-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Topdemir-77_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Topdemir-77_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Topdemir-77_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Topdemir, Hüseyin Gazi (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idosi.org/hssj/hssj2(1)07/10.pdf">"Kamal Al-Din Al-Farisi’s Explanation of the Rainbow"</a>. <i>Humanity & Social Sciences Journal</i> <b>2</b> (1): 75–85 [77]<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.idosi.org/hssj/hssj2(1)07/10.pdf">http://www.idosi.org/hssj/hssj2(1)07/10.pdf</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2008-09-16</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-MacTutor-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MacTutor_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MacTutor_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (November 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Farisi.html">"Kamal al-Din Abu'l Hasan Muhammad Al-Farisi"</a>. <a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics archive</a>, University of St Andrews<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Farisi.html">http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Al-Farisi.html</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2007-06-07</span>. "approximation obtained by his model was good enough to allow him to ignore the effects of the glass container"</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Topdemir, Hüseyin Gazi (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idosi.org/hssj/hssj2(1)07/10.pdf">"Kamal Al-Din Al-Farisi's Explanation of the Rainbow"</a>. <i>Humanity & Social Sciences Journal</i> <b>2</b> (1): 75–85 [83]<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.idosi.org/hssj/hssj2(1)07/10.pdf">http://www.idosi.org/hssj/hssj2(1)07/10.pdf</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2008-09-16</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-explanation-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-explanation_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-explanation_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Raymond L. Lee, Alistair B. Fraser (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA141&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false"><i>The rainbow bridge: rainbows in art, myth, and science</i></a>. Penn State Press. pp. 141–144 ISBN =0–271-01977–8. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01977-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01977-2">978-0-271-01977-2</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://books.google.com/?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA141&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false">http://books.google.com/?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA141&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false</a></span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Benjamin_Boyer" title="Carl Benjamin Boyer">Carl Benjamin Boyer</a> (1954). "Robert Grosseteste on the Rainbow". <i>Osiris</i> <b>11</b>: 247–258.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Sivin, Nathan (1995). <i>Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM</i>. III: Ashgate Publishing.. p. 24.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Dong, Paul (2000). <i>China's Major Mysteries: Paranormal Phenomena and the Unexplained in the People's Republic</i>. San Francisco: China Books and Periodicals, Inc.. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8351-2676-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8351-2676-5">0-8351-2676-5</a>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Nader El-Bizri (2005). "Ibn al-Haytham". In Thomas F. Glick, Steven J. Livesey, and Faith Wallis. <i>Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia</i>. New York — London: Routledge. pp. 237–240.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Nader El-Bizri (2005). "Optics". In Josef W. Meri. <i>Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia</i>. <b>II</b>. New York – London: Routledge. pp. 578–580.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Nader El-Bizri, (2006). "Al-Farisi, Kamal al-Din". In Oliver Leaman. <i>The Biographical Encyclopaedia of Islamic Philosophy</i>. <b>I</b>. London — New York: Thoemmes Continuum. pp. 131–135.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Nader El-Bizri (2006). "Ibn al-Haytham, al-Hasan". In Oliver Leaman. <i>The Biographical Encyclopaedia of Islamic Philosophy</i>. <b>I</b>. London — New York: Thoemmes Continuum. pp. 248–255.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">Davidson, Michael W. (August 1, 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/bacon.html">"Roger Bacon (1214–1294)"</a>. Florida State University<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/bacon.html">http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/bacon.html</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2006-08-10</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Raymond L. Lee, Alistair B. Fraser (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA155&dq=Rainbow+roger+Bacon#v=onepage&q=Rainbow%20roger%20Bacon&f=false"><i>The rainbow bridge: rainbows in art, myth, and science</i></a>. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01977-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01977-2">978-0-271-01977-2</a><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://books.google.com/?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA155&dq=Rainbow+roger+Bacon#v=onepage&q=Rainbow%20roger%20Bacon&f=false">http://books.google.com/?id=kZcCtT1ZeaEC&pg=PA155&dq=Rainbow+roger+Bacon#v=onepage&q=Rainbow%20roger%20Bacon&f=false</a></span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal"><a href="/wiki/Lindberg,_David_C" title="Lindberg, David C" class="mw-redirect">Lindberg, David C</a> (Summer, 1966). "Roger Bacon's Theory of the Rainbow: Progress or Regress?". <i>Isis</i> <b>57</b> (2): 235. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F350116">10.1086/350116</a>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theodoric of Freiberg (c. 1304-1310) <i>De iride et radialibus impressionibus</i> (On the rainbow and the impressions of radiance).</span></li> -<li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Boyer, Carl B. (1952). "Descartes and the Radius of the Rainbow". <i>Isis</i> <b>43</b> (2): 95–98. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1086%2F349399">10.1086/349399</a>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Gedzelman, Stanley David (1989). "Did Kepler's Supplement to Witelo Inspire Descartes' Theory of the Rainbow?". <i>Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</i> <b>70</b> (7): 750. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode" title="Bibcode">Bibcode</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989BAMS...70..750G">1989BAMS...70..750G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0477%281989%29070%3C0750%3ADKSTWI%3E2.0.CO%3B2">10.1175/1520-0477(1989)070<0750:DKSTWI>2.0.CO;2</a>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web">O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (January 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Newton.html">"Sir Isaac Newton"</a>. University of St. Andrews<span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Newton.html">http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Newton.html</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2007-06-19</span>.</span></span></li> -<li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See:</span> -<ul> -<li><span class="reference-text">G. B. Airy (1838) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=-yI8AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA379#v=onepage&q&f=false">"On the intensity of light in the neighbourhood of a caustic,"</a> <i>Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society</i> <b>6</b> (3): 379 - 403.</span></li> -<li><span class="reference-text">G. B. Airy (1849) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=2vsIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA595#v=onepage&q&f=false">"Supplement to a paper , "On the intensity of light in the neighbourhood of a caustic," "</a> <i>Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society</i> <b>8</b>: 595-600.</span></li> -</ul> -</li> -<li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Mie (1908) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/andp.19083300302/pdf">"Beiträge zur Optik trüber Medien, speziell kolloidaler Metallösungen"</a> (Contributions to the optics of turbid media, especially of colloidal metal solutions), <i>Annalen der Physik</i>, 4th series, <b>25</b> (3): 377–445.</span></li> -<li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation Journal">Nussenzveig, H. Moyses (1977). "The Theory of the Rainbow". <i>Scientific American</i> <b>236</b> (4): 116.</span></span></li> -</ol> -</div> -<h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2> -<ul> -<li><span class="citation book">Greenler, Robert (1980). <i>Rainbows, Halos, and Glories</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-521833-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-521833-7">0-19-521833-7</a>.</span></li> -<li><span class="citation book">Lee, Raymond L. and Alastair B. Fraser (2001). <i>The Rainbow Bridge: Rainbows in Art, Myth and Science</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University_Press" title="Pennsylvania State University Press" class="mw-redirect">Pennsylvania State University Press</a> and <a href="/wiki/SPIE_Press" title="SPIE Press" class="mw-redirect">SPIE Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01977-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01977-8">0-271-01977-8</a>.</span></li> -<li><span class="citation book">Lynch, David K.; Livingston, William (2001). <i>Color and Light in Nature</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-77504-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-77504-3">0-521-77504-3</a>.</span></li> -<li><span class="citation book">Minnaert, Marcel G.J.; Lynch, David K.; Livingston, William (1993). <i>Light and Color in the Outdoors</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" title="Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect">Springer-Verlag</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-97935-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-97935-2">0-387-97935-2</a>.</span></li> -<li><span class="citation book">Minnaert, Marcel G.J.; Lynch, David K.; Livingston, William (1973). <i>The Nature of Light and Color in the Open Air</i>. <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-20196-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-20196-1">0-486-20196-1</a>.</span></li> -<li><span class="citation book">Naylor, John; Lynch, David K.; Livingston, William (2002). <i>Out of the Blue: A 24-Hour Skywatcher's Guide</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-80925-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-80925-8">0-521-80925-8</a>.</span></li> -<li><span class="citation book">Boyer, Carl B. (1987). <i>The Rainbow, From Myth to Mathematics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-08457-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-08457-2">0-691-08457-2</a>.</span></li> -<li><span class="citation book">Graham, Lanier F., ed. (1976). <i>The Rainbow Book</i>. Berkeley, California: Shambhala Publications and The Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco.</span> (Large format handbook for the Summer 1976 exhibition <i>The Rainbow Art Show</i> which took place primarily at the <a href="/wiki/De_Young_Museum" title="De Young Museum" class="mw-redirect">De Young Museum</a> but also at other museums. The book is divided into seven sections, each coloured a different colour of the rainbow.)</li> -<li><span class="citation book">De Rico, Ul (1978). <i>The Rainbow Goblins</i>. <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-27759-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-27759-1">0-500-27759-1</a>.</span></li> -</ul> -<h2> <span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2> -<table class="metadata mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9;"> -<tr> -<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Wikiquote-logo-en.svg/40px-Wikiquote-logo-en.svg.png" width="40" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Wikiquote-logo-en.svg/60px-Wikiquote-logo-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Wikiquote-logo-en.svg/80px-Wikiquote-logo-en.svg.png 2x" /></td> -<td class="mbox-text plainlist" style="">Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: <i><b><a href="//en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Rainbows" class="extiw" title="q:Rainbows">Rainbows</a></b></i></td> -</tr> -</table> -<table class="metadata mbox-small plainlinks" style="border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9;"> -<tr> -<td class="mbox-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="30" height="40" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" /></td> -<td class="mbox-text plainlist" style="">Wikimedia Commons has media related to: <i><b><a href="//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Rainbow" class="extiw" title="commons:Special:Search/Rainbow">Rainbow</a></b></i></td> -</tr> -</table> -<ul> -<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cmhas.wikispaces.com/Atmospheric_Phenomena">Images by Crayford Manor House Astronomical Society</a></li> -<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eo.ucar.edu/rainbows/">National Center for Atmospheric Research, About Rainbows</a></li> -<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jal.cc.il.us/~mikolajsawicki/rainbows.htm">Supernumerary and Multiple Rainbows</a></li> -<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/22535/incredible-rainbows-worldwide">Incredible Rainbows Worldwide</a> - slideshow by <i><a href="/wiki/Life_magazine" title="Life magazine" class="mw-redirect">Life magazine</a></i></li> -<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/ntnujava/index.php?topic=44.0">Interactive simulation of light refraction in a drop (java applet)</a></li> -<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.missouriskies.org/rainbow/february_rainbow_2006.html">Spectacular rainbow at Elam Bend (McFall, Missouri)</a></li> -<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mitworld.mit.edu/video/33/">Walter Lewin's Discussion on colours and rainbow physics</a></li> -<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mdoublerainbows.html"><i>Straight Dope</i> on double rainbows</a></li> -<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sciencedude.freedomblogging.com/2009/02/08/rare-photo-of-the-end-of-the-rainbow">Rare photo of the ‘end’ of the rainbow</a></li> -<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.grad.ucl.ac.uk/comp/2007-2008/research/gallery/index.pht?entryID=183">Rainbow seen through infrared filter and through ultraviolet filter</a></li> -<li><a href="/wiki/Double_Rainbow_(viral_video)" title="Double Rainbow (viral video)">Double Rainbow (viral video)</a></li> -<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.atoptics.co.uk/bows.htm"><i>Atmospheric Optics</i> website by Les Cowley</a> - Description of multiple types of bows, including: "bows that cross, red bows, twinned bows, coloured fringes, dark bands, spokes", etc.</li> -</ul> -<p><span id="interwiki-de-ga"></span> <span id="interwiki-he-fa"></span> <span id="interwiki-pl-fa"></span></p> - - -<!-- -NewPP limit report -Preprocessor visited node count: 25344/1000000 -Preprocessor generated node count: 41924/1500000 -Post-expand include size: 129251/2048000 bytes -Template argument size: 49806/2048000 bytes -Highest expansion depth: 21/40 -Expensive parser function count: 4/500 ---> - -<!-- Saved in parser cache with key enwiki:pcache:idhash:3871014-0!*!0!!en!4!* and timestamp 20130318150719 --> -</div> <!-- /bodycontent --> - <!-- printfooter --> - <div class="printfooter"> - Retrieved from "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rainbow&oldid=544277802">http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rainbow&oldid=544277802</a>" </div> - <!-- /printfooter --> - <!-- catlinks --> - <div id='catlinks' class='catlinks'><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Categories" title="Help:Categories">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Atmospheric_optical_phenomena" title="Category:Atmospheric optical phenomena">Atmospheric optical phenomena</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lucky_symbols" title="Category:Lucky symbols">Lucky symbols</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia semi-protected pages">Wikipedia semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_move-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_rewrite_from_June_2011" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from June 2011">Wikipedia articles needing rewrite from June 2011</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_pages_needing_factual_verification" title="Category:All pages needing factual verification">All pages needing factual verification</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_factual_verification_from_September_2010" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from September 2010">Wikipedia articles needing factual verification from September 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_October_2011" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2011">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2011</a></li></ul></div></div> <!-- /catlinks --> - 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<li class="interwiki-mrj"><a href="//mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D3%B9%D0%BB" title="Шанавӹл" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj">Кырык мары</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-la"><a href="//la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcus_(caelestis)" title="Arcus (caelestis)" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-lv"><a href="//lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varav%C4%ABksne" title="Varavīksne" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-lt"><a href="//lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaivoryk%C5%A1t%C4%97" title="Vaivorykštė" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-hu"><a href="//hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sziv%C3%A1rv%C3%A1ny" title="Szivárvány" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-mk"><a href="//mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Виножито" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македонски</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-ml"><a href="//ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B4%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D" title="മഴവില്ല്" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-mi"><a href="//mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dpere" title="Kōpere" lang="mi" hreflang="mi">Māori</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-mr"><a href="//mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="इंद्रधनुष्य" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-ms"><a href="//ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelangi" title="Pelangi" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-cdo"><a href="//cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%AA%CC%A4%E1%B9%B3ng" title="Kê̤ṳng" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo">Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-mn"><a href="//mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE" title="Солонго" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-my"><a href="//my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%B6" title="သက်တံ" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-nah"><a href="//nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C5%8Dzam%C4%81l%C5%8Dtl" title="Cōzamālōtl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah">Nāhuatl</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-nl"><a href="//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenboog_(optica)" title="Regenboog (optica)" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-ne"><a href="//ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80" title="इन्द्रेणी" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-new"><a href="//new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE" title="लायेलामा" lang="new" hreflang="new">नेपाल भाषा</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-ja"><a href="//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%99%B9" title="虹" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-no"><a href="//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnbue" title="Regnbue" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-nn"><a href="//nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnboge" title="Regnboge" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-oc"><a href="//oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_de_Sant_Martin" title="Arc de Sant Martin" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-mhr"><a href="//mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BF%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Шонанпыл" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr">Олык марий</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-pa"><a href="//pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%82%E0%A8%98" title="ਸਤਰੰਗੀ ਪੀਂਘ" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-pnb"><a href="//pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%86%DA%AF" title="پینگ" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-ps"><a href="//ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%86%D9%87_%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87" title="شنه زرغونه" lang="ps" hreflang="ps">پښتو</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-koi"><a href="//koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BD%D3%A7%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Енӧшка" lang="koi" hreflang="koi">Перем Коми</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-km"><a href="//km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%A5%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%BC" title="ឥន្ទនូ" lang="km" hreflang="km">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-pl"><a href="//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%99cza" title="Tęcza" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-pt"><a href="//pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arco-%C3%ADris" title="Arco-íris" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-ro"><a href="//ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curcubeu" title="Curcubeu" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-qu"><a href="//qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%27uychi" title="K'uychi" lang="qu" hreflang="qu">Runa Simi</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-ru"><a href="//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Радуга" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Русский</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-stq"><a href="//stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rienbooge" title="Rienbooge" lang="stq" hreflang="stq">Seeltersk</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-sq"><a href="//sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ylberi" title="Ylberi" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li> - <li class="interwiki-scn"><a href="//scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcu_di_Nuv%C3%A8" title="Arcu di Nuvè" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li> - 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